Assessing the Ethics of Sampling
The growing concerns about the ethics of geologic sampling are relevant to teaching, research, and our
geoheritage (Chan and Mogk, 2022). This paper examines our current culture and attitudes on ethics from
sample collection to archiving, based on a community survey across multiple professional societies and
geoscience disciplines, as well as a Geological Society of America (GSA) Connects 2022 Noontime Lecture
Town Hall. Many helpful comments and suggestions from the geoscience community have helped move this
process forward toward a consensus on the need for developing standards for ethical geologic sampling. The
topic of sampling is complex and exposes values in conflict, with individual examples intimately tied to a
particular question being asked; thus, one size does not fit all. Professional societies can provide a
valuable service by having clearly stated guidelines for professional practice (e.g., as a requisite for
publication), and by developing resources about sampling that can be easily accessed and imported into
curricula for training future generations of geoscientists.
Survey Results
A survey made up of 46 questions was beta tested and refined prior to its release to multiple listservs
of co-sponsor societies in August 2022, administered by GSA staff. We collected results (n = 810)
over a three-week open period for responses. All anonymous survey data (see Supplemental
Material1) were aggregated so that no individuals could be identified. Nearly all questions had
a full spectrum of choices, many with optional comment boxes. The results are briefly summarized in the
six categories (A–F) below and served as a springboard for discussion at the GSA Connects 2022 Noontime
Lecture Town Hall in Denver, Colorado, USA.
A. Participant Data
We received data in nearly all sectors of different demographic types, including from all represented
subdisciplines across 47 countries (with U.S. emphasis). The majority of respondents were White males,
reflecting the common demographic in geological sciences. In the broad range from students to
professionals, 61% held Ph.D. degrees. About 65% of respondents were GSA members, 56% were American
Geophysical Union (AGU) members, and 92% were affiliated with other societies, reflecting multiple society
memberships.
B. Sampling Practices
Sampling is a critical practice in the geosciences with a variety of purposes: 68% for research, 34% for
industrial use, 23% for teaching, and 27% for outreach or other. Roughly half of the survey participants
said that in hindsight, they might have sampled differently. Respondents noted the need for sample
inventories and documentation, and the responsibility to develop comprehensive metadata, including how and
where samples are collected, stored, and shared to optimize their utility by other researchers.
C. Permissions and Permits
The vast majority of respondents seek appropriate permissions and permits for their sampling and mostly
navigate without problems. Some respondents commented on the value of inviting interaction with
landowners, and others noted inconsistent rules between different federal agencies. Particularly in
international work, respondents stressed the need for communication and collaboration with resident
international colleagues and stakeholders, thereby also addressing the criticism of “helicopter or
parachute science,” in which researchers from wealthier countries drop in and conduct research in emerging
countries with little or no interaction with local scientists or community members (e.g., Stefanoudis et
al., 2021). Respondents suggested that a website, or a panel of experienced expert mentors, should provide
guidance and best practices for early-career workers who could use advice on getting started in certain
international areas.
D. Sampling
Sampling Process
Most respondents (82%) always or mostly try to minimize their impact on the natural environment when
sampling, but at least half (51%) felt that they might have over-sampled at times. About 74% of
respondents have seen obvious sampling (on four or more occasions) by previous geoscientists. “Poor
judgement” in sampling can have a negative impact on our discipline and the public perception of
geoscientists (e.g., Sahagún, 2021). Survey participants indicated that >60% of samples were used for
research, but ~16% of collected samples were never analyzed.
Sample Fate
What is the ultimate fate of collected samples after the sampler’s retirement or end of career? Although
27% think the majority of samples will go to a designated archive or other research or teaching
collections (18%), 44% of the respondents either do not know where their samples will go or believe the
majority will be discarded. This response stresses the need for examining other alternatives for
repurposing or sharing samples, and/or finding appropriate archives, particularly where the samples have
the proper locality and scientific documentation. In rare cases, with department closures, reorganization,
or refocusing, there may be a loss of curation staff, and samples may be given low priority and/or simply
tossed without time to investigate repurposing. Ethics of sample retention and curation are also
important, particularly in a changing world where some original collection sites are no longer accessible
for physical, social, or political reasons.
E. Training, Impact
Given how important sampling is to our discipline, it is surprising that 63% of respondents have never
had any formal training as students on sampling ethics. There is a strong consensus that students want and
could use more training in values and ethics in their curriculum. Some students noted that they hear more
about “leave no trace” through the outdoor recreation industry. Given how important outdoor interactions
are to geologists, ethics training should be a high priority. Many indicated they would welcome resources
and materials to help integrate ethics into the curriculum. 91% of respondents feel that sampling in very
sensitive sites with strong geoheritage value or cultural and/or spiritual significance might warrant
careful review of sampling plans and procedures.
F. Actions for the Future
Although requiring proof of sampling permits can be difficult and sometimes unrealistic, nearly 75% of
respondents felt that publications should possibly require a sampling ethics statement. And, going
forward, 79% of respondents indicated interest in development and access to teaching or resource materials
on the ethics of sampling. Certain geoscience society journals are already implementing codes of
publishing ethics and/or mandatory standards that include statements on sampling ethics. As an example on
the ethics of fossil sampling, the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology has already developed an ethics code
that specifically addresses sampling practices (SVP, 2023), and that applies to all of their membership
and those who publish in their journals or participate in their events. Similarly, the Geological Society
of London (GSL, 2023) requires a statement regarding ethical sampling practices in their publications.
Expansion of the GSA Code of Ethics & Professional Conduct (GSA, 2023a) to explicitly address ethical
sampling practices is a positive action GSA can take to collaborate and provide resources to fill this
clear need. GSA has begun to address the issue of sampling ethics and related open access to samples and
data in their Ethical Guidelines for Publication (section 3.7, GSA, 2023b) and GSA Data Policy for
Publications (paragraph 4, GSA, 2021), but these policies and position statements need to be revisited and
strengthened.
Targeted Suggestions
Small groups at the GSA Connects 2022 Noontime Lecture Town Hall had spirited discussions targeting five
topics (highlights below) that could affect how professional societies can respond.
1. On Resources
Formal training on permitting and the ethics of sampling is highly desirable. Publications, webpages, or
online resources with best practices would be useful across all sectors and subdisciplines. Also,
checklists and resources for navigating permits and building relationships with land managers (government,
tribal, and private) could be useful for many. A central webpage with a good search engine would be
immediately relevant.
2. On Advice
It is common to look to our professional societies for advice and professional guidance. Societies can
help with information repositories and flow charts for developing field and sampling plans, a possible
form or checklist for educational versus research activities, and an advisory board of experienced
researchers that can recommend best practices at specific localities. Students may see or find themselves
in situations that cause angst about sampling ethics. An advisory board or confidential mentoring could
provide valuable advice on how to navigate such difficult situations.
3. On Formal Statements
Position statements are mostly outward looking, but societies could look at internal commitments to
ethics and possibly bolster their existing codes of ethics. Even informal statements can have an impact.
One example of a simple action to take would be reading a few sentences on ethics or distributing a code
of conduct right at the start of professional or society-sponsored field trips.
4. On Publications
“Leave no trace” should be the core of guiding practices on samples that comprise our published research,
but stronger language as part of the journal publications could raise awareness and help train authors on
the importance of sampling ethics. Legalities are difficult to enforce, but even strong aspirational
statements can give authors pause to reflect on their sampling practices. Ethical statements commonly
exist for research practices in other science disciplines (e.g., biological animal testing), and similar
guidelines on sampling practices should be developed and universally applied to the geosciences as well.
5. On Archiving
This is a long-term issue involving data standards, sharing provenance, and any archiving of information
as well as physical specimens. Various sample registration systems (e.g., System for Earth Sample
Registration, SESAR) are aimed at standard archival and retrievable sample information. Several state
surveys, museums, and government agencies have local repositories for particular samples that relate to
their mission. However, it is a familiar story to hear about samples going to the dumpster after a faculty
member retires.
Questions surrounding sensitive lands include: Should some rocks be repatriated in cases where they were
taken from areas with cultural or spiritual significance? What are the ethical obligations of long-term
care or stewardship of samples under the original sampling agreement? What should be done if conditions or
sensitivities change?
What is the responsibility of the investigator after they are done with a sample? In some cases, a rock
swap for teaching may be used as an example of how samples can be repurposed. Even if full metadata (i.e.,
any descriptive data used for discovery and identification) is not available for samples to be of value to
research, these may still be representative samples that are of value for teaching collections. Many
samples collected for one research project can be repurposed to enable complementary and emerging new
lines of research. A similar exchange of available research samples may be warranted, and this would have
the added benefit of expanding collaborative research opportunities across the geosciences.
Along with physical samples, the power of cyberinfrastructure could be both practical and powerful for
archiving, such as providing a GIS layer of samples collected (tied to geographic coordinates) with all
other informational metadata. However, maintaining database management systems can be very time consuming
and expensive.
GSA’s Role in Moving Ethics Forward
Multiple societies cosponsored this survey on the ethics of sampling, highlighting a widespread need and
desire for collaboration to raise the integrity of our discipline. GSA could be a leader in this area.
More specifics on sampling ethics can both leverage and strengthen GSA’s 2022 position statement on
Responsible Geologic Fieldwork Practices (GSA, 2022), as well as GSA’s Code of Ethics & Professional
Conduct, Section 3.1 (GSA, 2023a). Ultimately, societies can create task forces and committees to set
naming or metadata conventions, as well as garnering solid recommendations and sharable resources that can
benefit the science and its society memberships. One new resource recently created from the work that went
into this study is a Field Ethics and Sampling checklist decal or sticker that is currently freely
available at all GSA meetings (Fig. 1). GSA has also started a website (www.geosociety.org/fieldethics) for field ethics resources to go with this
decal, and more resources will be added to this site over time.
Figure 1
New field ethics and sampling checklist sticker that is freely available at GSA meetings and is a quick
and easy guide for conducting research in the field.
Now is the opportune time for the geoscience community to continue open communication and involvement on
the critical topic of sampling ethics, in order to guide and train future generations, and to both
conserve and protect our geoheritage.
Acknowledgments
The GSA survey and forum were co-sponsored by the American Geophysical Union (AGU), American Geosciences
Institute (AGI), International Association Promoting Geosciences (IAPG), Mineralogical Society of America
(MSA), National Association of Geoscience Teachers (NAGT), Paleontological Society (PS), and U.S. National
Committee for Geological Sciences (USNC-GS).
We thank Brian Pratt for his review and input on this paper. We gratefully acknowledge the input of all
GSA survey respondents and meeting forum participants. We thank GSA staff Elizabeth Long and Emily Levine,
and acknowledge support from the U.S. National Committee on Geological Sciences.
References Cited
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